Artificial intelligence is beginning to put pressure on labor markets across major developed economies, with the impact varying by industry and the level of workers, according to research from Goldman Sachs.

The Wall Street investment bank found that industries more exposed to AI automation have generally experienced slower growth in job openings since the second half of 2022. The relationship has been particularly noticeable in the United States, Germany and Australia.

Goldman Sachs said employment in information and communication services, one of the industries most exposed to AI, has slowed across nearly all major developed economies since 2022. However, employment in these sectors remains close to or above its long-term trend in most countries outside the US.

The research also found growing employment pressure in several highly AI-exposed industries. Jobs in call centres, software publishing, management consulting and advertising have fallen significantly below their historical trends across developed markets.

Call centres have been particularly affected. Employment in the sector is now around 39% below its historical trend in the US, 33% lower in Canada and 27% below trend in Germany.

Goldman Sachs said the findings suggest that the employment impact of AI is already becoming visible in industries where technologies capable of automating human tasks are widely available.